| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
Reproductive Biology |
Laboratorio Ecotono, Centro Regional Universitario Bariloche, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Quintral 1250, 8400 Bariloche, Argentina
Received for publication May 31, 2001. Accepted for publication September 7, 2001.
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
|---|
Key Words: allozyme electrophoresis • Alstroemeria aurea • Alstroemeriaceae • clonality • genetic similarity • inbreeding
|
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
|---|
; Levin, 1989
). In turn, restricted gene movement is the main mechanism that produces genetic structure in natural populations; this mechanism causes kinship between individual plants to decrease with increasing distance between mates (Turner, Stephens, and Anderson, 1982
; Sokal and Wartenberg, 1983
; Barbujani, 1987
). As a consequence, reduced fertility is often observed in crosses between near-neighbor plants compared with crosses among more distant plants (e.g., Price and Waser, 1979
; Park and Fowler, 1982
; Levin, 1984
; Sobrevila, 1988
; Waser and Price, 1993
). To counteract the deleterious effects of this putative inbreeding depression, diverse prezygotic and postzygotic barriers have evolved along different plant lineages to reduce the chance of fertilization and seed maturation from crosses between closely related parents, i.e., crosses representing biparental inbreeding (Libby, McCutchan, and Millard, 1981
; Charlesworth and Charlesworth, 1987
; Lynch, 1991
; Waller, 1993
; Waser, 1993
; Waser and Price, 1993
).
The most efficient reproductive barriers are those acting at prezygotic stages, either on germination or pollen tube growth, because they save ovules from being "usurped" by kin (Waser and Price, 1991a
). Gametophytic and sporophytic incompatibility are well-studied examples of reproductive systems that involve the genetic recognition of pistil and pollen at prezygotic stages (e.g., Wunnachit et al., 1992
). Much less is known about the existence of prezygotic barriers that reduce biparental inbreeding in self-compatible species.
Here we evaluated the performance of pollen (germination and tube growth) in the pistils of self-compatible Alstroemeria aurea Graham, a clonal herb, between mates separated by distances of 1, 10, and 100 m. We also determined the actual genetic relatedness between pollen donors and recipients using allozyme electrophoresis.
Restricted gene flow is expected within populations of A. aurea because of limited pollen and seed dispersal in combination with vegetative reproduction. In turn, restricted gene flow should set the stage for genetic structure (i.e., kinship of plants that are neighbors) and thus for biparental inbreeding, with deleterious consequences on plant fitness (particularly important for A. aurea due to its perennial habit; Klekowski, 1988
). Inbreeding depression upon selfing, expressed as reduced seed set and seed mass, has been reported in this species (Aizen and Basilio, 1995
). Thus, although A. aurea lacks classical self-incompatibility, the selective filtering of pollen in the style based on genetic relatedness might operate to diminish biparental inbreeding.
We addressed the following related questions: (1) Does pollen performance in the style relate to crossing distance? (2) Are physically closer mates more genetically similar, on average, than more distant ones? (3) Can potential distance-dependent effects on pollen performance be accounted for by genetic relatedness between mates?
|
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
|---|
5 cm), long-lived (8–10 d), orange to yellow, and zygomorphic. Flowers have six stamens and one style with three stigmatic branches, with no overlap between the period of anther dehiscence (4–5 d) and stigma receptivity (3–4 d); they are separated by about a 1-d neuter phase. Within single inflorescences, flowers change sex from male to female synchronously. Ovaries have 17–26 ovules, but even under unlimited pollination usually <50% of ovules become seeds (Aizen and Basilio, 1995
).
Nectar-seeking insects mediate pollen transfer. The most frequent and efficient pollinators are workers of Bombus dahlbomii, the only native species of bumblebee (Aizen, 2001)
. Minor pollinators are different native species of Diptera of the genus Tricophtalma (Nemestrinidae), solitary bees, and the exotic Apis mellifera. Average flight distances of all these pollinators do not exceed 1 m (Souto, 1999
). Alstroemeria aurea also lacks any special mechanism for long-distance seed dispersal. Its large seeds disperse ballistically a few meters at most (Aizen and Basilio, 1995
). It also reproduces vegetatively by rhizome branching and fragmentation.
This study was carried out in a natural population of A. aurea in the upper Challhuaco Valley, Nahuel Huapi National Park, Argentina (41°8' S; 71°19' W). In this area, ramets of A. aurea dominate the understory forming a dense, spatially continuous mat underneath an old-growth Nothofagus pumilio forest. Individual clones cannot be visually identified.
Crossing experiment
During the 1997 austral summer, from the beginning of January to the end of February and just before anthesis, we emasculated 120 recipient (focal) ramets, each with three flowers, by removing all anthers with fine forceps. Recipient ramets were scattered over an area of 2 x 1 km. Inflorescences were bagged with 1-mm mesh mosquito netting during the neuter phase. At the peak of stigma receptivity (middle of female phase), each of the three flowers of a given focal inflorescence received unlimited fresh pollen from one of three different donors occurring at 1, 10, and 100 m in random directions from the focal recipient ramet (Fig. 1). The three pollination treatments were assigned randomly to the flowers of each ramet. Thus, we hand-pollinated a total of 360 flowers (i.e., 120 recipient ramets x 3 distance treatments) by rubbing anthers of a given donor over the stigmatic surface of a corresponding recipient flower. Three to four days after pollination, we removed pollination bags and collected withered styles just before they would have fallen naturally. Styles were fixed and stored in individual microcentrifuge tubes containing FAA (formalin : acetic acid : ethyl alcohol, 5 : 5 : 90). Fruits were not collected because most of them were damaged by a severe early frost before maturation.
|
). Squashed preparations were examined with an epifluorescence microscope (Wild Leitz GMBH, Biomed, Nürnberg, Germany). We estimated the number of germinated pollen grains as the number of pollen tubes penetrating the stigma, which was similar to the number of pollen grains still attached to the stigma. We also counted the number of pollen tubes that grew to the base of the style. The total pollen load that was deposited on each stigma was estimated from counts of pollen grains attached to the stigma and detached grains in the FAA medium after evaporation of the liquid on a microscope slide (Aizen and Raffaele, 1998
).
Electrophoresis
In the field, we collected 2–3 fresh leaves from each donor and recipient ramet to genotype them using allozyme electrophoresis. The samples were transported in a portable cooler to the laboratory where they were stored at –80°C within 1 h of collection. We determined the genotype of all pollen donor and recipient plants at different isozyme loci. The loci were considered putative, as we did not carry out formal genetic analysis in A. aurea. However, the observed banding patterns were typical of the same enzymatic systems reported in species for which formal analysis has been conducted (e.g., Soltis et al., 1983
).
Enzymes were extracted using the buffer of Mitton et al. (1979)
. Homogenates were stored at –80°C until horizontal electrophoresis on 12% v/v starch gels was conducted. We resolved seven enzymatic systems that coded for ten loci. These were: isocitrate dehydrogenase (Idh), phosphoglucoisomerase (Pgi-1, Pgi-2), 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6Pgd), malate dehydrogenase (Mdh-1, Mdh-2) in the morpholine-citrate buffer system (Ranker et al., 1989
) that ran for 4 h at 20 mA; and malic enzyme (Me-1, Me-2), shikimate dehydrogenase (Skdh) and menadione reductase (Mnr) in the histidine-EDTA buffer (King and Dancik, 1983
) that ran for 5 h at 35 mA. Electrophoresis was carried out at 4°C until the bromophenol blue marker had moved 10 cm from the origin towards the anode. The anodic portion of the gels was sliced horizontally in four sections, each 1 mm thick. Stain procedures for the studied enzymes followed commonly used protocols reported elsewhere (Conkle et al., 1982
; Soltis et al., 1983
). The alleles were numbered sequentially, with the lowest number indicating the fastest moving towards the anode.
Data analysis
We evaluated the effect of treatment (i.e., crossing distance of 1, 10, and 100 m) on postpollination pollen performance (number of germinated pollen grains and number of pollen tubes reaching the base of the style) using ANCOVA with "recipient ramet" as a blocking factor. Total number of pollen grains deposited on the stigma was used as a covariate for number of germinated grains, while number of germinated grains was used as a covariate for number of pollen tubes. All dependent variables and covariates were log(x + 1) transformed to eliminate right skew of raw values. We report back-transformed least-squares means of log-transformed variables. For those data sets that were not completely balanced, we based significance tests on type III sums of squares (SAS, 1988
).
Isozyme data were used to calculate indicators of genetic variability at the population level including the mean number of alleles per locus (A); the percentage of polymorphic loci (p), using the 95% criterion (i.e., the frequency of the most common allele at a locus did not exceed 0.95); and the observed (Ho) and expected heterozygosity (He) under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Fixation indices (F) were calculated for each locus and deviations of genotypic frequencies from expectations were analyzed by chi-square tests. Average within-population inbreeding (Fis) and 95% confidence intervals were estimated by resampling methods using FSTAT version 2.9.1 (Goudet, 2000)
.
The degree of genetic dissimilarity between a given pair of recipient and donor ramets was calculated using an index of isozyme differences based on the eight polymorphic loci (see RESULTS). This index was calculated by adding 0 if donor and recipient shared the same two alleles at a locus, 0.5 if they had only one allele in common, and 1 if they shared none. This index was averaged across polymorphic loci and ranged from 0 for genetically identical mates to 1 for those that did not have any allele in common.
We searched for genetic structure in two different ways. We tested for differences in the index of genetic dissimilarity among distance classes, using ANOVA with "recipient ramet" as a blocking factor. We also estimated the probability that two ramets separated by 1, 10, or 100 m belonged to the same clone as the proportion of crosses sharing the same alleles at all polymorphic loci. This should be considered a liberal estimate of clonal identity because two ramets that had the same alleles at the studied loci might differ in other loci not included in this study.
We tested for differences in pollen performance across distance classes between intraclonal (endogamous) and interclonal (allogamous) crosses by including genetic relatedness as a second factor in the ANCOVAs described above. A given cross was considered endogamous or intraclonal when it occurred between donor and recipient ramets that were genetically identical; otherwise the cross was considered allogamous or interclonal. This classification produced an unequal number of observations per cell, so we used type III sums of squares in the analysis.
|
RESULTS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
|---|
|
|
The estimated percentage of intraclonal crosses was 8.2%, and this percentage strongly decreased with distance (
2 = 20.8, df = 2, P < 0.0001). The percentage of intraclonal crosses for ramets separated by 1, 10, and 100 m was 17.5, 5.3, and 1.7%, respectively. Accordingly, we found that the average genetic dissimilarity between mates strongly increased with crossing distance (Table 2; Fig. 3). This tendency persisted even after excluding the intraclonal crosses from analysis (Table 2; Fig. 3).
|
|
|
|
|
DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
|---|
Although many studies have looked for crossing distance effects on either fruit or seed set (e.g., Levin, 1984
; Sobrevila, 1988
; Redmond, Robbins, and Travis, 1989
; Rigney et al., 1993
), only a few have examined how distance affects pollen performance in the style (Levin, 1981, 1989
; Waser and Price, 1991b
; Hubbard, Conta, and Smith, 1993
; Carney, Cruzan, and Arnold, 1994
). As we did, Price and Waser (1979)
found differences in pollen tube growth at distances of 1, 10, and 100 m in Delphinium nelsonii. However, they did not find a continuous increase but rather an optimum crossing distance of 10 m. They interpreted their results as evidence that the styles of D. nelsonii are able to discriminate not only against inbred pollen tubes, but also against outbred tubes associated with long-distance crosses. Indeed, the occurrence of outbreeding as well as inbreeding depression were reported in that species, and the differential attrition of pollen tubes was proposed as a mechanism of mate choice (Waser and Price, 1991b, 1993
). The high genetic mixing observed in A. aurea despite clonal reproduction suggests the existence of extensive genetic neighborhoods (Antlfinger, 1982
), perhaps larger than those of D. nelsonii. If this were the case, outbreeding depression and discrimination of highly outbred pollen tubes in A. aurea might be only evident at crossing distances longer than 100 m.
Many studies also assumed that crossing distance effects on either pre- or postzygotic reproductive success were a consequence of the genetic similarity between mates (which is expected to correlate with distance) but this assumption was rarely tested directly (Wunnachit et al., 1992
; Trame, Coddington, and Paige, 1995
). We reported two complementary results showing that this was the case in A. aurea. First, genetic similarity correlates with physical separation between the mates we crossed. An overall nonrandom distribution of genotypes was also shown by positive Wright's fixation indices (Fis) together with significant differences between expected and observed heterozygosity. Second, crosses between mates genetically identical (according to their isozyme profiles) resulted in the same high levels of pollen tube attrition irrespective of crossing distance, while pollen tube performance from crosses between ramets belonging to different clones increased monotonically with distance (Fig. 4B). Accordingly, genetic similarity between interclonal mates decreased with distance. These results allow us to attribute the poor performance of pollen from neighboring sources not to distance per se, but to the actual degree of genetic relatedness between pollen donor and recipient expressed at the style. A practical implication of our findings is that pollen tube number (after accounting for pollen load) may be used as an indicator of pollination quality and/or of pollen source distance. This may be a useful attribute to measure when, for instance, comparing efficiency among different pollinator taxa (Schmitt, 1980, 1983
; Thomson and Plowright, 1980
).
A previous study in A. aurea demonstrated that donor plants under physiological stress, particularly leaf damage, produce pollen that shows impaired tube growth in recipient styles (Aizen and Raffaele, 1998
). In addition to environmental effects, the evidence presented here shows that, despite self-compatibility, the genetic relatedness between pollen donor and recipient is also an important variable determining access of pollen to ovules. Because stigmas of A. aurea commonly received genetically diverse pollen loads 3–5 times in excess of the minimum required for full seed set (Aizen, 2001)
, competition for ovules among different pollen genotypes should occur frequently. Under this scenario, an intrinsic discrimination by the styles against genetically related pollen may become exacerbated if high attrition rates are also a reflection of reduced tube growth. In turn, discrimination among pollen-donor genotypes in the styles can have a profound influence in the population's genetic structure (Rigney et al., 1993
).
A high degree of asexual reproduction is generally associated with limited recombination and genetic monomorphism (Pleasants and Wendel, 1989
). A growing number of studies show, however, that many clonal plants are able to maintain considerable amounts of genetic variability (Eckert and Barrett, 1993
; and references therein). The levels of genetic variability and mixing found in A. aurea are indeed very high for a plant with clonal growth (Parker and Hamrick, 1992
). This is illustrated by the low proportion of ramets separated by only 1 m belonging to the same clone (17%). It has been argued that strong synchronous dichogamy, as the one described in A. aurea, could contribute significantly to decreased inbreeding (Aizen and Basilio, 1995
). However, in highly self-compatible plants with clonal growth, such as A. aurea, this mechanism would not prevent mating between near ramets belonging to the same clone.
How then are high local levels of genetic diversity maintained in A. aurea? One contributing factor is, despite A. aurea's poor seed dispersal, the establishment of new individuals under the shade of already-established genets, a capacity perhaps associated with the large seeds produced by this species (Puntieri, 1991
). In time, continuous recruitment at the local level via seed would lead to a high degree of interdigitation among different clones, which has also been observed by mapping underground connections in natural populations of this species (J. Puntieri and M. A. Aizen, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, unpublished data). We propose that another important complementary factor is the existence of prezygotic barriers favoring allogamous pollen tubes. A superior ability in siring offspring by physically distant and genetically distinct donors might compensate for the lower representation of pollen from these sources on the flowers' stigmas. Therefore, the differential filtering of outbred pollen in the style may result in the production of genetically diverse seeds despite restricted pollen flow. This mechanism may limit, via local seedling establishment, the development of spatial genetic structure (i.e., kinship structure) in A. aurea populations (cf. Wright, 1946
; Slatkin and Maruyama, 1975
; Slatkin, 1976
; Waser and Price, 1983
; Waser, 1993
).
Here we demonstrated that even in a self-compatible species, styles may constitute potent selective sieves that can effectively discriminate among pollen-donor genotypes. The evolution of prezygotic barriers has widespread consequences from individuals to populations. At the individual level, prezygotic barriers may represent an efficient mechanism to reduce deleterious effects of biparental inbreeding, perhaps the proximate cause of its evolution. At the population level, the differential filtering of pollen in the style may constitute an important determinant of the total amount of genetic diversity that is maintained within a population and how this variability is partitioned over space.
|
FOOTNOTES |
|---|
2 Author for reprint requests (tel: +54 2944 423374/426368; FAX: +54 2944 422111; csouto{at}crub.uncoma.edu.ar
)
|
LITERATURE CITED |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
|---|
Aizen M. A. A. Basilio 1995 Within and among flower sex-phase distribution in Alstroemeria aurea (Alstroemeriaceae). Canadian Journal of Botany 73: 1986-1994
Aizen M. A. E. Raffaele 1998 Flowering shoot defoliation affects pollen grain size and postpollination pollen performance in Alstroemeria aurea. Ecology 79: 2133-2142[ISI]
Antlfinger A. E. 1982 Genetic neighbourhood structure of the salt marsh composite, Borrichia frutescence. Journal of Heredity 73: 128-132
Barbujani G. 1987 Autocorrelation of gene frequencies under isolation by distance. Genetics 117: 777-782
Carney S. E. M. B. Cruzan M. L. Arnold 1994 Reproductive interactions between hybridizing irises: analyses of pollen-tube growth and fertilization success. American Journal of Botany 81: 1169-1175[CrossRef][ISI]
Charlesworth D. B. Charlesworth 1987 Inbreeding depression and its evolutionary consequences. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 18: 237-268[CrossRef][ISI]
Conkle M. T. P. D. Hodgkiss L. B. Nunnally S. C. Hunter 1982 Starch gel electrophoresis of conifer seeds: a laboratory manual. General Technical report PSW-64. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experimental Station, Forest Service, U.S.D.A., Berkeley, California, USA
Eckert C. G. S. C. H. Barrett 1993 Clonal reproduction and patterns of genotypic diversity in Decodon verticillatus (Lythraceae). American Journal of Botany 80: 1175-1182[CrossRef][ISI]
Goudet J. 2000 FSTAT. A program to estimate and test gene diversities and fixation indices, release 2.9.1. Université de Lausanne, Dorigny, Switzerland
Handel S. N. 1983 Pollination ecology, plant population structure, and gene flow. In L. Real [ed.], Pollination biology, 163–221. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA
Hubbard T. D. M. Conta S. E. Smith 1993 Seed production and pollen tube growth following cross- and self-pollinations in Sphaeralcea laxa Woot. & Standl. Southwestern Naturalist 38: 331-335[CrossRef][ISI]
King J. N. B. P. Dancik 1983 Inheritance and linkage of isozymes in white spruce (Picea glauca). Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology 25: 430-436[ISI]
Klekowski E. J. 1988 Genetic load and its causes in long-lived plants. Trees 2: 195-203
Levin D. A. 1981 Dispersal versus gene flow in plants. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Gardern 68: 233-253
Levin D. A. 1984 Inbreeding depression and proximity-dependent crossing success in Phlox drummondii. Evolution 38: 116-127[CrossRef][ISI]
Levin D. A. 1989 Proximity-dependent cross compatibility in Phlox. Evolution 43: 1114-1116[CrossRef][ISI]
Libby W. J. B. G. McCutchan C. I. Millard 1981 Inbreeding depression in selfs of redwood. Silvae Genetica 30: 15-25
Lynch M. 1991 The genetic interpretation of inbreeding depression and outbreeding depression. Evolution 45: 622-629[CrossRef][ISI]
Martin F. W. 1959 Staining and observing pollen tubes in the style by means of fluorescence. Stain Technology 34: 125-128[ISI][Medline]
Mitton J. B. Y. B. Linhart K. B. Sturgeon J. L. Hamrick 1979 Allozyme polymorphisms detected in mature needle tissue of ponderosa pine. Journal of Heredity 70: 86-89
Park Y. S. D. P. Fowler 1982 Effects of inbreeding and genetic variance in a natural population of Tamarack (Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch) in eastern Canada. Silvae Genetica 31: 21-26
Parker K. J. Hamrick 1992 Genetic diversity and clonal structure in a columnar cactus, Lophocereus schottii. American Journal of Botany 79: 86-96[CrossRef][ISI]
Pleasants J. M. J. F. Wendel 1989 Genetic diversity in a clonal narrow endemic, Erythronium propullans, and in its widespread progenitor, Erythronium albidum. American Journal of Botany 76: 1136-1151[CrossRef][ISI]
Price M. N. Waser 1979 Pollen dispersal and optimal outcrossing in Delphinium nelsonii. Nature 277: 294-297[CrossRef]
Puntieri J. G. 1991 Vegetation response on a forest slope cleared for a skin-run with special reference to the herb Alstroemeria aurea Graham (Alstroemeriaceae), Argentina. Biological Conservation 56: 207-221[CrossRef][ISI]
Ranker T. A. C. H. Haufler P. S. Soltis D. E. Soltis 1989 Genetic evidence for allopolyploidy in the neotropical fern Hemionitis pinnitifida (Adiantaceae) and the reconstruction of an ancestral genome. Systematic Botany 14: 439-447[CrossRef][ISI]
Redmond A. L. Robbins L. Travis 1989 The effects of pollination distance on seed production in three populations of Amianthium muscaetoxicum (Liliaceae). Oecologia 79: 260-264[CrossRef][ISI]
Rigney L. J. Thomson M. Cruzan J. Brunet 1993 Differential success of pollen donors in a self-compatible lily. Evolution 47: 915-924[CrossRef][ISI]
SAS. 1988 SAS user's guide: statistics. SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina, USA
Schmitt J. 1980 Pollinator foraging behaviour and gene dispersal in Senecio (Compositae). Evolution 34: 934-943[CrossRef][ISI]
Schmitt J. 1983 Density-dependent pollinator foraging, flowering phenology, and temporal pollen dispersal patterns in Linanthus bicolor. Evolution 37: 1247-1257[CrossRef][ISI]
Slatkin M. 1976 The rate of spread of an advantageous allele in a subdivided population. In T. Karlin and J. Nevo [eds.], Population genetics and ecology, 767–780. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA
Slatkin M. T. Maruyama 1975 The influence of gene flow on genetic distance. American Naturalist 109: 597-601[CrossRef][ISI]
Sobrevila C. 1988 Effects of distance between pollen donor and pollen recipient on fitness components in Espeletia schultzii. American Journal of Botany 75: 701-724[CrossRef][ISI]
Sokal R. R. D. E. Wartenberg 1983 A test of spatial autocorrelation analysis using an isolation by distance model. Genetics 105: 219-237
Soltis D. E. C. H. Haufler D. C. Darrow G. J. Gastony 1983 Starch gel electrophoresis of ferns: a compilation of grinding buffers, and staining schedules. American Fern Journal 73: 9-27[CrossRef][ISI]
Souto C. P. 1999 Barreras precigóticas y distancias de cruzamiento en el éxito reproductivo de Alstroemeria aurea: una hipótesis genético-ecológica. Thesis, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Bariloche, Argentina
Thomson J. D. R. C. Plowright 1980 Pollen carryover, nectar rewards, and pollinator behaviour with special reference to Diervilla lonicera. Oecologia 46: 68-74[CrossRef][ISI]
Trame A. M. A. J. Coddington K. N. Paige 1995 Field and genetic studies testing optimal outcrossing in Agave schottii, a long-lived clonal plant. Oecologia 104: 93-100[CrossRef][ISI]
Turner M. E. J. C. Stephens W. W. Anderson 1982 Homozygosity and patch structure in plant populations as a result of nearest neighbour pollinations. Proceedings of the Natural Academy of Sciences, USA 79: 203-207[CrossRef]
Waller D. M. 1993 The statics and dynamics of mating system evolution. In N. W. Thornhill [ed.], The natural history of inbreeding and outbreeding: theoretical and empirical perspectives, 97–117. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA
Waser N. M. 1993 Population structure, optimal outbreeding, and assortative mating in angiosperms. In N. W. Thornhill [ed.], The natural history of inbreeding and outbreeding: theoretical and empirical perspectives, 173–199. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA
Waser N. M. M. V. Price 1983 Optimal and actual outcrossing in plants, and the nature of plant–pollinator interaction. In C. E. Jones and R. J. Little [eds.], Handbook of experimental pollination biology, 341–359. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, New York, USA
Waser N. M. M. V. Price 1991a Reproductive costs of self-pollination in Ipomopsis agregata (Polemoniaceae): are ovules usurped?. American Journal of Botany 78: 1036-1043[CrossRef][ISI]
Waser N. M. M. V. Price 1991b Outcrossing distance effects in Delphinium nelsonii: pollen load, pollen tubes, and seed set. Ecology 72: 171-179[CrossRef][ISI]
Waser N. M. M. V. Price 1993 Crossing distance effects on prezygotic performance in plants: an argument for female choice. Oikos 68: 303-308[CrossRef][ISI]
Wright S. 1946 Isolation by distance under diverse systems of mating. Genetics 31: 39-59
Wunnachit W. S. J. Pattison L. Giles A. J. Millington M. Sedgley 1992 Pollen tube and genotype compatibility in cashew in relation to yield. Journal of Horticultural Science 67: 67-75[ISI]
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  G. Gleiser, J. G. Segarra-Moragues, J. R. Pannell, and M. Verdu Siring Success and Paternal Effects in Heterodichogamous Acer opalus Ann. Bot., May 1, 2008; 101(7): 1017 - 1026. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. GLAETTLI, L. PESCATORE, and J. GOUDET Proximity-dependent Pollen Performance in Silene vulgaris Ann. Bot., August 1, 2006; 98(2): 431 - 437. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
