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Genetic variation and population structure in central and isolated populations of balsam fir, Abies balsamea (Pinaceae)¹

²Department of Biology, St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota 55057 USA; ³Department of Plant Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108 USA

Genetic variation and spatial genetic structure in balsam fir (Abies balsamea) were examined in two isolated populations in Iowa and Minnesota thought to be paleorefugia and in two ecologically central populations in old-growth forests of Upper Michigan. Overall levels of genetic variability at 22 allozyme loci were lower than that found in most conifer species (H_o values ranged from 0.005 in the isolated populations to 0.025 in the central populations). The mean F_IS value (0.154) was larger than usually found in conifers and suggests moderate levels of inbreeding. The mean F_ST, an estimate of genetic diversity among populations, was 3.7% of the total diversity, a value lower than the mean for conifers. Nm, the number of migrants per generation, was 6.5, suggesting either some gene flow among populations or a lack of genetic differentiation. Spatial autocorrelation analysis revealed a moderately patchy structure, with gene flow distances of 30–70 m in the central populations and at least 10 m in the isolated populations. The future of the ecologically central populations depends on maintenance of an intact forest mosaic. The low genetic variability in the small, isolated populations suggests that habitat fragmentation has led to a reduction in evolutionary potential and that the future viability of these populations will likely require active management in the face of global climate change.

Key Words: Abies balsamea • allozymes • balsam fir • gene flow • genetic variation • habitat fragmentation • Pinaceae • small population size • spatial autocorrelation

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